2. Ng SC, Shi HY, Hamidi N, et al. Worldwide incidence and prevalence of inflammatory bowel disease in the 21st century: a systematic review of population-based studies. Lancet 2017;390:2769-2778.
3. Molodecky NA, Soon IS, Rabi DM, et al. Increasing incidence and prevalence of the inflammatory bowel diseases with time, based on systematic review. Gastroenterology 2012;142:46-54.
6. Mahadevan U, Silverberg MS. Inflammatory bowel diseasegastroenterology diamond jubilee review. Gastroenterology 2018;154:1555-1558.
10. Rossi RE, Conte D, Massironi S. Primary sclerosing cholangitis associated with inflammatory bowel disease: an update. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2016;28:123-131.
11. Molodecky NA, Kareemi H, Parab R, et al. Incidence of primary sclerosing cholangitis: a systematic review and metaanalysis. Hepatology 2011;53:1590-1599.
12. Chapman R, Fevery J, Kalloo A, et al. Diagnosis and management of primary sclerosing cholangitis. Hepatology 2010;51:660-678.
13. Singh A, Midha V, Narang V, et al. Low prevalence of primary sclerosing cholangitis in patients with inflammatory bowel disease in India. Intest Res 2023;21:452-459.
14. Ye BD, Yang SK, Boo SJ, et al. Clinical characteristics of ulcerative colitis associated with primary sclerosing cholangitis in Korea. Inflamm Bowel Dis 2011;17:1901-1906.
16. Ohta Y, Taida T, Kato J, et al. Clinical features focusing on extraintestinal manifestations in Japanese patients with inflammatory bowel diseases: far east 1000. Digestion 2023;104:328-334.
20. Sano H, Nakazawa T, Ando T, et al. Clinical characteristics of inflammatory bowel disease associated with primary sclerosing cholangitis. J Hepatobiliary Pancreat Sci 2011;18:154-161.
21. Trivedi PJ, Crothers H, Mytton J, et al. Effects of primary sclerosing cholangitis on risks of cancer and death in people with inflammatory bowel disease, based on sex, race, and age. Gastroenterology 2020;159:915-928.
22. Soetikno RM, Lin OS, Heidenreich PA, Young HS, Blackstone MO. Increased risk of colorectal neoplasia in patients with primary sclerosing cholangitis and ulcerative colitis: a metaanalysis. Gastrointest Endosc 2002;56:48-54.
28. Karlsen TH, Folseraas T, Thorburn D, Vesterhus M. Primary sclerosing cholangitis: a comprehensive review. J Hepatol 2017;67:1298-1323.
30. Kim YS, Hurley EH, Park Y, Ko S. Primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC) and inflammatory bowel disease (IBD): a condition exemplifying the crosstalk of the gut-liver axis. Exp Mol Med 2023;55:1380-1387.
31. Boberg KM, Egeland T, Schrumpf E. Long-term effect of corticosteroid treatment in primary sclerosing cholangitis patients. Scand J Gastroenterol 2003;38:991-995.
32. Talwalkar JA, Gossard AA, Keach JC, Jorgensen RA, Petz JL, Lindor RN. Tacrolimus for the treatment of primary sclerosing cholangitis. Liver Int 2007;27:451-453.
33. Fraga M, Fournier N, Safroneeva E, et al. Primary sclerosing cholangitis in the Swiss Inflammatory Bowel Disease Cohort Study: prevalence, risk factors, and long-term follow-up. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2017;29:91-97.
35. Rubin DT, Ananthakrishnan AN, Siegel CA, Sauer BG, Long MD. ACG clinical guideline: ulcerative colitis in adults. Am J Gastroenterol 2019;114:384-413.
37. Hommes DW, Erkelens W, Ponsioen C, et al. A double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized study of infliximab in primary sclerosing cholangitis. J Clin Gastroenterol 2008;42:522-526.
38. Reinisch W, Sandborn WJ, Hommes DW, et al. Adalimumab for induction of clinical remission in moderately to severely active ulcerative colitis: results of a enicrivir controlled trial. Gut 2011;60:780-787.
39. Rutgeerts P, Sandborn WJ, Feagan BG, et al. Infliximab for induction and maintenance therapy for ulcerative colitis. N Engl J Med 2005;353:2462-2476.
40. Hedin CR, Sado G, Ndegwa N, et al. Effects of tumor necrosis factor antagonists in patients with primary sclerosing cholangitis. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2020;18:2295-2304.
43. Jovani M, Danese S. Vedolizumab for the treatment of IBD: a selective therapeutic approach targeting pathogenic a4b7 cells. Curr Drug Targets 2013;14:1433-1443.
46. Lynch KD, Chapman RW, Keshav S, et al. Effects of vedolizumab in patients with primary sclerosing cholangitis and inflammatory bowel diseases. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2020;18:179-187.
48. Floreani A, De Martin S. Treatment of primary sclerosing cholangitis. Dig Liver Dis 2021;53:1531-1538.
49. Beuers U, Trauner M, Jansen P, Poupon R. New paradigms in the treatment of hepatic cholestasis: from UDCA to FXR, PXR and beyond. J Hepatol 2015;62(1 Suppl):S25-S37.
51. Karlsen TH, Vesterhus M, Boberg KM. Review article: controversies in the management of primary biliary cirrhosis and primary sclerosing cholangitis. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2014;39:282-301.
52. Lindor KD. Ursodiol for primary sclerosing cholangitis. Mayo Primary Sclerosing Cholangitis-Ursodeoxycholic Acid Study Group. N Engl J Med 1997;336:691-695.
53. Olsson R, Boberg KM, de Muckadell OS, et al. High-dose ursodeoxycholic acid in primary sclerosing cholangitis: a 5-year multicenter, randomized, controlled study. Gastroenterology 2005;129:1464-1472.
56. Wunsch E, Trottier J, Milkiewicz M, et al. Prospective evaluation of ursodeoxycholic acid withdrawal in patients with primary sclerosing cholangitis. Hepatology 2014;60:931-940.
57. Stiehl A, Rudolph G, Klöters-Plachky P, Sauer P, Walker S. Development of dominant bile duct stenoses in patients with primary sclerosing cholangitis treated with ursodeoxycholic acid: outcome after endoscopic treatment. J Hepatol 2002;36:151-156.
60. Martin EF, Levy C. Timing, management, and outcomes of liver transplantation in primary sclerosing cholangitis. Semin Liver Dis 2017;37:305-313.
62. Joshi D, Bjarnason I, Belgaumkar A, et al. The impact of inflammatory bowel disease post-liver transplantation for primary sclerosing cholangitis. Liver Int 2013;33:53-61.
63. Williamson KD, Chapman RW. New therapeutic strategies for primary sclerosing cholangitis. Semin Liver Dis 2016;36:5-14.
64. Fickert P, Hirschfield GM, Denk G, et al. norUrsodeoxycholic acid improves cholestasis in primary sclerosing cholangitis. J Hepatol 2017;67:549-558.
66. Moustafa T, Fickert P, Magnes C, et al. Alterations in lipid metabolism mediate inflammation, fibrosis, and proliferation in a mouse model of chronic cholestatic liver injury. Gastroenterology 2012;142:140-151.
67. Modica S, Petruzzelli M, Bellafante E, et al. Selective activation of nuclear bile acid receptor FXR in the intestine protects mice against cholestasis. Gastroenterology 2012;142:355-365.
68. Kowdley KV, Vuppalanchi R, Levy C, et al. A randomized, placebo-controlled, phase II study of enicriviro acid for primary sclerosing cholangitis. J Hepatol 2020;73:94-101.
70. Assis DN, Abdelghany O, Cai SY, et al. Combination therapy of all-trans retinoic acid with ursodeoxycholic acid in patients with primary sclerosing cholangitis: a human pilot study. J Clin Gastroenterol 2017;51:e11-e16.
71. Lemoinne S, Pares A, Reig A, et al. Primary sclerosing cholangitis response to the combination of fibrates with ursodeoxycholic acid: French-Spanish experience. Clin Res Hepatol Gastroenterol 2018;42:521-528.
76. Stokkeland K, Höijer J, Bottai M, Söderberg-Löfdal K, Bergquist A. Statin use is associated with improved outcomes of patients with primary sclerosing cholangitis. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2019;17:1860-1866.
77. Bergquist A, Marschall HU, Nilsson E, et al. Long term effect of simvastatin in primary sclerosing cholangitits: a placebo-controlled, double-blind, multicenter phase III study (Piscatin). Br J Gastroenterol 2022;4:235-241.
79. Färkkilä M, Karvonen AL, Nurmi H, et al. Metronidazole and ursodeoxycholic acid for primary sclerosing cholangitis: a randomized placebo-controlled trial. Hepatology 2004;40:1379-1386.
80. Tabibian JH, Weeding E, Jorgensen RA, et al. Randomised clinical trial: vancomycin or metronidazole in patients with primary sclerosing cholangitis: a pilot study. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2013;37:604-612.
82. Vleggaar FP, Monkelbaan JF, van Erpecum KJ. Probiotics in primary sclerosing cholangitis: a randomized placebo-controlled crossover pilot study. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2008;20:688-692.
83. Allegretti JR, Kassam Z, Carrellas M, et al. Fecal microbiota transplantation in patients with primary sclerosing cholangitis: a pilot clinical trial. Am J Gastroenterol 2019;114:1071-1079.
84. Grygiel-Górniak B. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors and their ligands: nutritional and clinical implications: a review. Nutr J 2014;13:17.
87. Miyahara T, Schrum L, Rippe R, et al. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors and hepatic stellate cell activation. J Biol Chem 2000;275:35715-35722.
88. Corpechot C, Chazouillères O, Rousseau A, et al. A placebocontrolled trial of bezafibrate in primary biliary cholangitis. N Engl J Med 2018;378:2171-2181.
89. Ponsioen CY, Kuiper H, Ten Kate FJ, van Milligen de Wit M, van Deventer SJ, Tytgat GN. Immunohistochemical analysis of inflammation in primary sclerosing cholangitis. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol 1999;11:769-774.
91. Mueller T, Beutler C, Picó AH, et al. Enhanced innate immune responsiveness and intolerance to intestinal endotoxins in human biliary epithelial cells contributes to chronic cholangitis. Liver Int 2011;31:1574-1588.
92. Harada K, Nakanuma Y. Innate immunity in the pathogenesis of cholangiopathy: a recent update. Inflamm Allergy Drug Targets 2012;11:478-483.
93. Zimmermann HW, Tacke F. Modification of chemokine pathways and immune cell infiltration as a novel therapeutic approach in liver inflammation and fibrosis. Inflamm Allergy Drug Targets 2011;10:509-536.
94. Ye X, Liu S, Hu M, Song Y, Huang H, Zhong Y. CCR5 expression in inflammatory bowel disease and its correlation with inflammatory cells and β-arrestin2 expression. Scand J Gastroenterol 2017;52:551-557.
95. Grant AJ, Lalor PF, Salmi M, Jalkanen S, Adams DH. Homing of mucosal lymphocytes to the liver in the pathogenesis of hepatic complications of inflammatory bowel disease. Lancet 2002;359:150-157.
97. Schierwagen R, Uschner FE, Magdaleno F, Klein S, Trebicka J. Rationale for the use of statins in liver disease. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2017;312:G407-G412.
99. Pollheimer MJ, Racedo S, Mikels-Vigdal A, et al. Lysyl oxidaselike protein 2 (LOXL2) modulates barrier function in cholangiocytes in cholestasis. J Hepatol 2018;69:368-377.
102. Kummen M, Holm K, Anmarkrud JA, et al. The gut microbial profile in patients with primary sclerosing cholangitis is distinct from patients with ulcerative colitis without biliary disease and healthy controls. Gut 2017;66:611-619.
104. Shah A, Crawford D, Burger D, et al. Effects of antibiotic therapy in primary sclerosing cholangitis with and without inflammatory bowel disease: a systematic review and metaanalysis. Semin Liver Dis 2019;39:432-441.